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International support[1] refers back to the switch of public funds to advertise social and financial growth in underdeveloped international locations. Nonetheless, support’s position in selling growth is very contested. Critics of international support suspiciously view support as a international coverage (FP) software to realize financial, political and strategic targets. Regardless of such criticism over failure to deliver significant growth by support, rising donors similar to China, India, Brazil and Turkey proceed to supply international support to different growing international locations. Hans Morgenthau means that an understanding of conventional support motivation is essentially the most baffling topic.[2] Nonetheless, what’s extra baffling is to grasp the motives of rising donors since most of them are support recipients themselves and have related growth challenges as their recipients. Loads of research on support motivation recommend that conventional donors pursue financial, political, and safety associated pursuits by support.[3] Regardless of the dearth of research on rising donors, current literature discovered related motivations for support in rising donors similar to China and Brazil.[4] Though the present literature emphasis on donors’ materialistic motives on support giving, the symbolic drivers of international support are ignored. This text tries to fill this hole in literature by specializing in Turkey’s use of international support as a international coverage software to garner status globally. In doing so, the article first analyzes the theoretical and empirical views on support motivation by giving a lot weight to the symbolic points of support giving. Subsequent, the article focuses on analyzing the significance of status associated targets within the earlier and present regimes in Turkey. The article concludes that as an rising energy that lacks a tough energy to affect international politics, Turkey will proceed to make use of its support as a gentle energy software to earn status and good-will globally.
Motivations for Support: Theoretical and Empirical Views
Analysts of international support affiliate the motivation for support with states’ materials pursuits overseas. Amongst conventional IR theorists, realists view international support as an influence software to make sure states’ self-interests overseas.[5] Support serves strategic self-interests together with sustaining affect within the former colonies; shopping for UN votes; combating terrorism; strengthening alliances; and constructing army bases within the recipient nation.[6] For neo-realists, support can function a software to advertise a donor’s financial pursuits together with guaranteeing pure useful resource provide, selling commerce and funding relations, and entry to new market. Alternatively, liberalism views growth help as a cooperation mechanism to sort out international challenges and guarantee international stability, peace and prosperity.[7] The speculation means that support helps to advertise a liberal commerce regime, improve international financial interdependence, scale back poverty, and improve financial growth, which finally will assist to scale back the dangers of contagious ailments, battle and migration that endanger international order.[8] Constructivists justify international support when it comes to norms and concepts. They view international support as an ethical responsibility of developed international locations to assist and enhance the circumstances of these dwelling in much less developed international locations.[9] In favor of a constructivist interpretation, Lumsdaine argues that support coverage is formed by the ethical visions (‘moral’ and ‘humane’ considerations) of donors.[10] Constructivists additionally underline that the need for fame (worldwide picture), promotion of nationwide id and values are additionally among the motivations for international support in developed international locations.[11] Because of this states which aspire to be seen as a accountable actor by the worldwide neighborhood abide by the internationally accepted ethical values and norms similar to support giving.
Whereas it’s evident that donor states pursue materialistic targets because the theories of realism and liberalism recommend, in addition they pursue symbolic or non-material pursuits similar to gaining status, recognition, standing, respect, and rising international visibility. On this regard, status support suppliers search to achieve fame internationally and mission a sure id, picture or values. Donors present status support in the event that they aspire to spice up or enhance their picture, standing, and shallowness. In line with constructivists, ideational components play vital position in shaping status associated support insurance policies of donors.[12] State’s self-perceived id or nationwide picture, which is formed by home or worldwide norms, values, and historic and cultural parts, drive its exterior motion similar to the availability of support.[13] In different phrases, a state’s worldwide actions are the mirror reflection of the home conception of its picture. As an illustration, a state that aspires to mission a sure id, picture or worth similar to a rising energy or international energy standing engages in support exercise to mirror its picture or id. Equally, a state that aspires to be seen as an lively and accountable member of the worldwide neighborhood can be anticipated to have interaction in worldwide actions together with the availability of support that mirror its self-image.
Conventional donors use support to mission a positive worldwide picture and construct their fame and respect. As an illustration, the Nordic donors, Denmark and Norway, aspire to mission their picture as humane internationalists or humanitarian powers.[14] The Nordic donors have executed so by offering a beneficiant quantity of support with a focus on growth targets similar to poverty discount. In Japan, though its support is a industrial oriented, policymakers are additionally targeted on enhancing the nation’s worldwide picture and bettering its “low post-war worldwide political standing”.[15] Thus, it’s argued that Japan locations an excessive amount of emphasis on nationwide status, delight and honor which can be mirrored in its structure.[16] Just like Japan, Germany additionally aspired to enhance its post-war worldwide picture by support. Self-perception as a worldwide energy can be one of many drivers of support in former European imperial powers similar to France, Italy and Britain. In France, as an example, coverage makers are motivated by the imaginative and prescient of besoin de rayonnement, translated because the “must shine,” therefore France spreads its language, values and tradition in recipient international locations to mirror its aspirations for excellent energy standing.[17] Italy’s imaginative and prescient of the grandezza (grandeur) as an ideal energy aspirant and the UK’s former nice energy standing are additionally within the minds of support policymakers.[18] Nonetheless, the position of status motivation in rising powers’ support coverage has remained unexplored in support literature.
Only a few research on rising donors similar to China, India and Brazil indicate that rising donors use support to pursue status associated targets.[19] These donors contend for international nice energy standing, view themselves as leaders of the worldwide South and aspire to achieve fame from the Southern international locations. Donors like Saudi Arabia with a self-perceived picture as a pure regional chief and the chief of the Islamic world, seeks incomes status from the regional international locations and the Muslim world by support. For donors, gaining status or standing will be seen as each an finish objective and a way to achieve additional advantages. Donors are in a position to improve their id and shallowness as a strong actor. Being a “donor” additionally yields constructive feelings like honor or delight. Donors can even win the hearts and minds of the recipient international locations or the worldwide neighborhood. Being recognized as a strong nation helps rising powers to counter perceptions or stereotypes that they’re backward and underdeveloped.[20] Donors use support to garner soft-power and use soft-power to develop their affect in regional and international politics and guarantee their financial and safety pursuits. Some leaders in donor international locations additionally use their international support recognition as an instrument to spice up their home legitimacy similar to China.[21]
Turkey’s Quest for International Support Status
Just like the standard donors and different rising donors, Turkish support is predominated by prestige-seeking similar to selling a constructive picture overseas and self-affirmation as a accountable or “ethical” actor. Status associated motives are a given with issues for each the previous and present policymakers. Turkish elites envision positioning the nation as a accountable chief and search to depict its picture in favorable gentle globally. Turkish determination makers and students alike usually acknowledge the nation as an rising energy/donor,[22] a standing which builds the nation’s id as a self-confident international actor.[23] As Baran and Lesser stress, trendy Turkey views itself as a “accountable” energy that’s “eager to stick to worldwide norms”.[24] Evoked by its historic grandeur, which is linked to the previous Ottoman empire, Turkish leaders envisioned and sought to mission a picture of “greatness” or nice energy.[25] As an illustration, following its home financial transformation, the Turgut Özal regime aspired to be among the many high 15 most-developed international locations and declared the 21st century because the century of the Turks.[26] The regime additionally offered Turkey as “a regional chief within the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Balkans”.[27] In step with these self-images and aspirations, Turkey shifted from its conventional international coverage (FP) orientation and expanded its relations with the neighborhood areas together with the Center East and the Turkic republics throughout his period.
For instance, Özal advocated for a brand new regional position for the nation within the post-Chilly Warfare. On this case, Turkey took an initiative to determine the Black Sea Financial Cooperation Accord (BSECA) in 1990 to facilitate financial cooperation with the Black Sea regional international locations. Müftüler et al emphasize that the FP formulation and enactment on the time was per Turkey’s “regional energy picture”.[28] Therefore, the formation of BSECA was aimed toward selling Turkey’s regional management. The emergence of the newly impartial international locations in Central Asia, within the 90s, which it shares an identical language, historical past, ethnicity and tradition with, turned a possibility to mission its self-perceived rising energy and management picture. Turkey created political, cultural, and financial relations with the newly impartial republics. Turkey’s positional management was intersubjectively understood by Turkish coverage makers. As an illustration, then PM Demirel envisioned a “Turkic world” that stretches from the Adriatic to China, and coverage makers on the time aspired to kind a commonwealth of Turkish republics or a political and financial union below its management. Turkey’s coverage in the direction of the republics was ruled by sure ideas, together with: strengthening their state construction; helping their financial and political reform; integrating the republic with the worldwide neighborhood, particularly with Western establishments; and constructing bilateral relations primarily based on mutual profit and respect for sovereignty.[29] In step with these ideas, Turkey began its coordinated support observe to help the reconstruction of these republics, particularly Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The Turkish support coordination company (TIKA) was created in 1992 to coordinate and perform growth tasks in these international locations. TIKA has carried out varied tasks in social, financial and cultural areas similar to training, well being, agriculture growth, restoration, finance and different fields within the early days of its institution.[30]
The ability vacuum created in its borders after the dissolution of the USSR was a possibility for Turkey to legitimize its aspired picture. By rising its affect within the area by growth help for state constructing and financial and political reforms, Turkey aspires to be seen as an necessary and accountable participant in regional and international politics. Turkey used its support to pursue its self-interests of enhancing its management place within the area, rising its visibility and enhancing its fame, along with reaching different international financial and safety pursuits. Musa Kulaklıkaya, the previous head of TIKA, asserts that the transformation in home financial situation because the Nineteen Eighties have enabled Özal’s regime to contain within the provision of growth help to extend Turkey’s international visibility.[31] Strengthening its fame as a regional energy brings a number of advantages to Turkey specifically after the top of the Chilly Warfare. As an illustration, by asserting its management standing, Turkey needed to regain its geopolitical significance within the eyes of the West, which she has misplaced when the bipolar world order was over. As well as, by supporting their independence and integrating neighboring international locations to traditionally Western establishments, Turkey aspired to achieve fame from the West and consolidate its bid for membership to Western golf equipment such because the EU. Turkey additionally aspired to undermine the affect of different regional powers like Russia and Iran, by presenting herself as a “large brother” and another energy.[32] Generally, throughout the begin of its support program, support was a part of the FP of the regime to consolidate its self-perceived picture as a strong regional actor.
But, Turkey’s support quantity and its general involvement within the western worldwide growth regime remained restricted. The dynamics began to alter with the approaching to energy of the JDP. Just like the earlier regimes, gaining fame and respect is on the core of the JDP’s international and support coverage. Political elites of the JDP, just like former elites, envision the nation as a accountable rising international energy. Taking a look at FP associated paperwork and official discourses of political elites one can simply perceive the significance of status in Turkish international support coverage. As an illustration, Ahmet Davutoğlu, the previous International Minister and former international coverage advisor of President Erdoğan, who was an architect behind the Turkish FP throughout his period, underlined his imaginative and prescient of the nation as a accountable “central” participant.[33] The goal of his strategic imaginative and prescient, as outlined in his guide “Strategic Depth”, was to reposition the nation as a central actor somewhat than a peripheral one in worldwide affairs. This was a principled perception shared by different coverage makers or elites together with these within the developmental support discipline. This perception formed Turkish FP to be extra multidimensional and proactive with an ambition to construct relations with and play a better position in several areas in Africa and the Center East. In step with the proactive international coverage, Turkey restructured its support company[34], redefined its support mannequin to stick to the worldwide growth support norms and regimes and improve the amount and geographic attain of its support past the rapid neighborhood. Turkey echoes the event challenges of the worldwide South in international boards and contributes to the promotion of sustainable growth in areas with lesser geo-strategic significance for Turkey similar to Africa.[35] Each actions, redefining its support mannequin and activism on the worldwide South’s growth, indicate its aspiration to be recognized with the standard donors as a like-minded accountable actor and acquire sympathy from the Southern nations, respectively.
Turkey endeavors to strengthen its central energy standing and acquire international recognition by conveying a beautiful nationwide picture overseas by its growth cooperation actions.[36] A constructive picture of Turkey boosts its soft-power which in flip, in line with the Turkish coverage makers’ notion, helps Turkey to develop its affect in neighboring areas and “play a number one position in selective international points”.[37] The gentle energy additionally helps the nation to deepen its financial, army and strategic ties with the recipients.[38] As an illustration, Turkey’s gentle energy is demonstrated by a rise in commerce relations in Africa. As well as, because the Former TIKA president defined, Turkey’s goodwill, constructed by its support exercise in Africa, has enabled Turkey to garner nearly all votes from Africa in its bid to win a seat as a United Nations Safety Council (UNSC) non-permanent member.[39] Such helps assist Turkey to make sure its pursuits revered in such organizations and improve its self-confidence and international significance. International support coverage additionally helps the JDP regime to hunt legitimacy overseas in opposition to potential home opposition.[40]
Turkey additionally stresses on its humanitarian coverage to indicate itself as an ethical and accountable actor, thus boosts its fame as a humanitarian energy. Turkish coverage makers understand that as an rising energy, Turkey is accountable for the welfare and peace of different growing international locations, a notion that’s talked about vis-à-vis its growth help. As an illustration, in 2011, President Erdoğan underlined that it’s Turkey’s “acutely aware accountability” to help growing international locations.[41] Turkey has proactively engaged in and supported international humanitarian, growth and mediation agendas. On this regard, Turkey is applauded because the “most beneficiant” humanitarian state, which its support officers and coverage makers take into account it as a supply of delight and aggressive benefit over different donors.[42]
Whereas gaining international fame is a shared goal among the many present and former policymakers, the tendency to achieve status among the many Muslim neighborhood is extra evident below the pro-Islam JDP regime. Turkish support serves as a software to construct solidarity and acquire status among the many Muslim communities (Ummah).[43] Ummah, in line with Cumakov, denotes “the only common Islamic neighborhood”, through which regional actors similar to Iran and Saudi Arabia compete for the management place.[44] Turkish growth cooperation will be seen below the context of rivalry with different Islamic international locations similar to Saudi Arabia, Iran, and UAE that present support to consolidate its visibility among the many Islamic international locations within the Center East and Africa. Turkish policymakers affiliate the nation’s humanitarian and growth support in Muslim international locations with Islamic worth. Turkey sought to pursue a diplomatic ‘management’ or current an ‘picture of a powerful Turkey reaching out to Muslims in every single place on the planet’ by its swift support response to Rohingya Muslims and repeated name for the safety Muslims globally.[45] This picture is properly acquired by the vast majority of the Muslim neighborhood and Turkey is seen because the “champion of Muslims’ rights”.[46] Duran additionally forwards an identical argument that Turkey’s “Muslim solidarity politics”, its ummah-centered FP, and its advocacy to safeguard “the ummah’s pursuits from Somalia and Rakhine to Syria” have gained recognition among the many Muslim communities and reified the nation’s standing because the “chief of the Islamic world”.[47]
The professional-ummah coverage has impacted the route of Turkey’s support circulation. Though Turkey claims that it gives support “no matter tradition, faith or ethnic background”,[48] the privileged beneficiaries of its support are international locations with Muslim majority and international locations with shared historical past and tradition. This helps to reinforce its visibility and fame throughout the ummah. As well as, Turkey’s support group invests in each growth tasks, and non secular and cultural actions similar to the development of mosques, renovation of Ottoman mosques and heritages, funding spiritual training, establishing Turkish language heart, and distributing the Holy Kuran[49] in these international locations or communities. These support actions are a part of Turkey’s strategic method to extend the appreciation and esteem of Turkish values and tradition and improve its gentle energy internationally and inside the ummah.
Conclusion
Turkey’s support is way from being solely growth oriented. This doesn’t imply that Turkish support shouldn’t be partly influenced by altruistic ethos as its coverage makers stress, however growth is a secondary goal. Turkish support is aligned with its international coverage targets and it’s not purely altruistic. Few indicators help this truth. As an illustration, Turkey largely funds small social tasks, which have had small impacts in reaching long-term or sustainable growth within the recipients. This may be interpreted within the gentle of its financial stage, that’s, being a middle-income nation itself, Turkey can’t afford to supply support for the event of others whereas having the challenges of developments internally. As well as, Turkey lacks nation particular technique or coverage that focuses on growth. As a substitute, Turkey diversifies the geographic attain of its support with no clear insurance policies for the event of the recipients. This means its aspiration to achieve status and visibility throughout the globe by support which additional assist the nation to make sure different FP targets.
Because the historical past of Turkish support reveals, gaining status has been the centerpiece of Turkish support coverage because the begin of its coordinated support program within the Nineties. International support is a software that helps Turkey to raise and preserve its newly acquired place as a regional and worldwide participant. Though the sustainability of Turkish support will be debated because it is dependent upon its financial progress, Turkey has clearly accentuated its dedication to help the event of Least Developed Nations and the continuation of its support actions. This implies that international support will stay as an integral a part of its international coverage for the foreseeable future. Subsequently, as a rustic that’s missing the hard-power capabilities to form the route of regional and worldwide affairs in its favor, international support serves Turkey as a soft-power software to extend its status, visibility, fame and finally its regional and international affect. On this regard, international locations with shared historical past, tradition and faith, similar to these in its neighboring areas, stay to be the targets of Turkish support.
Finish Notes
[1] The time period “international support” on this article denotes official growth help (ODA) and it’s interchangeably used with different phrases similar to growth help, growth support, growth cooperation and support.
[2] Morgenthau Hans, “A Political Idea of International Support,” The American Political Science Evaluation, Vol. 56, No. 2 (1962), pp. 301-309.
[3] Carol Lancaster, International support: Diplomacy, Growth, Home Politics, (Chicago: College of Chicago Press, 2007). Schraeder, Peter J, Bruce Taylor, and Steven W. Hook. “Clarifying the International Support Puzzle: A Comparability of American, Japanese, French, and Swedish Support Flows,” World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 2 (1998): 294-323. Maurits Van der Veen, Concepts and pursuits in international coverage: The politics of official growth help, (New York: Cambridge College Press, 2011).
[4] Carmen Robledo-Lopez, “New Donors, Similar Outdated Practices? Growth Cooperation Insurance policies of Center-Earnings Nations,” Ph.D. Thesis, Australian Nationwide College, 2018.
[5] Steven W. Hook, Nationwide Curiosity and International Support, (Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1995).
[6] Clair Apodaca, “International Support as International Coverage Instrument,” Oxford Analysis Encyclopedia of Politics (Apr 26, 2017), retrieved Oct 07, 2021, from https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-332. Alberto Alesina and David Greenback, “Who Offers International Support to Whom and Why?,” Journal of Financial Development, Vol. 5, No. 1 (2000), pp. 33-63.
[7] Lancaster, op. cit, 2007.
[8] Susan M. Roberts, “From Recipients to Donors: Rising Powers and the Altering Growth Panorama,” By Emma Mawdsley, Financial Geography, Vol. 89, No. 4 (2013), pp. 429-430.
[9] Lancaster, op. cit, 2007.
[10] David H Lumsdaine, Ethical Imaginative and prescient in Worldwide Politics: The International Support Regime, 1949-1989, (Princeton College Press, 1993).
[11] Van der Veen, op. cit, 2011.
[12] Lancaster, op, cit, 2007; Van der Veen, op. cit, 2011.
[13] Hisahiro Kondoh et al., “Range and Transformation of Support Patterns in Asia’s ‘Rising Donors’,” Working Paper collection 21, JICA Analysis Institute, 2010.
[14] Dan Banik and Nikolai Hegertun, “Why do nations put money into worldwide support? Ask Norway and China,” Washington Submit (October 27, 2017).
[15] Robledo, op. cit, 2018.
[16] The Japanese structure stipulates its need to achieve status: “We need to occupy an honored place in worldwide society” (Lancaster, op. cit. 2007, p.135).
[17] Schraeder et al, 1998.
[18] Robledo, 2018; Van der Veen, 2000
[19] Robledo, op. cit, 2018.
[20] ibid
[21] Yong Deng, China’s Wrestle for Standing. The Realignment of Worldwide Relations, (New York: Cambridge College Press, 2008).
[22] Mehmet Özkan, “Does “rising energy” imply “rising donor”? Turkey’s growth support”, Africa. Africa Evaluation Vol. 5, No. 2 (2013), pp. 139-147.
[23] Andrea Binder, “The Form and Sustainability of Turkey’s Booming Humanitarian Help,” Open Version Journals, Vol. 5, No. 1, (2014).
[24] Zeyno Baran and Ian O. Lesser, “Turkey’s Identification and Technique: A Recreation of Three-Dimensional Chess,” in Michael Schiffer and David Shorr (eds.), Powers and Rules Worldwide Management in a Shrinking World. (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2009), p. 197.
[25] Ahmet Insel, “Turning into a world financial energy, The neo- nationalism of the AKP,” in Riva Kastoryano (ed.), Turkey between Nationalism and Globalization, (Abingdon, Routledge, 2013), pp.187-198.
[26] Riva Kastoryano (ed.), Turkey between Nationalism and Globalization, (Abingdon, Routledge, 2013).
[27] Dimitris Keridis, “The international coverage of Turkey,” in McKercher, BJC (ed) Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft, (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012), pp. 157.
[29] Ahmed Raza, “Turkey’s International Support Programmes and its International Coverage Activism in Africa,” in Mujib Alam, Views on Turkey’s Multi-Regional Position within the 21st Century. (New Delhi, KW Publishers Pvt Ltd, 2015). pp. 322-338.
[30] See TIKA official webpage.
[32] Oktay F. Tanrisever, “Turkey’s Coverage in the direction of the Caspian Sea Area: Widening Hole between Ankara’s Expectations and Capabilities,” in Carlo Frappi and Azad Garibov (eds),The Caspian Sea Chessboard. Geo-political, Geo-Strategic, and Geo-economic evaluation. Azerbaijan: (Middle for Strategic Research, 2014), pp. 221-237.
[33] Ahmet Davutoğlu, Strategik Derinlik, Turkiye’nin Uluslararasi Konumu, (Istanbul: Kure Yayinlari. 2001). As well as, the previous international minister Ali Babacan refers the nation as a “international participant” (Baran and Lesser, 2009). Comparable view is shared by earlier international minister Ismail Cem (see https://www.milliyet.com.tr/en/turkey-a-global-player-5396132).
[34] Till the not too long ago, TIKA was restructured below the PM workplace as a public authorized entity with a separate finances. Nonetheless, following the presidential system, TIKA is restricted below the ministry of tourism.
[35] Turkey has hosted the fourth UN Convention on LDCs in 2011and dedicated to contribute 200 million yearly for LDC’s growth. Between 2012 and 2015, Turkey contributed greater than USD 500 million, exceeding its pledges.
[36] Jeannine Hausman and Erik Lundsgaarde, “Turkey’s Position in Growth Cooperation,” (Tokyo: UNU-CPR, 2015).
[37] Bülent Aras, Davutoğlu Period in Turkish International Coverage Revisited. Journal of Balkan and Close to Jap Research, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2014, pp. 404-418.
[38] Yavuz Tüyloğlu, “Turkish Growth Help as a International Coverage Instrument and Its Discordant Places,” CATS WP No. 2, 2021.
[39] TİKA, “Faaliyet Raporu,” Ankara: Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Company, 2008.
[40] Senem B. Çevik, “Turkey’s State-Based mostly International Support: Narrating ‘Turkey’s Story’,” Rising Energy Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2016, pp. 55-67.
[41] TİKA, “Faaliyet Raporu,” Ankara: Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Company, 2011, p.13
[42] Asli Aydıntaşbaş, “From fable to actuality: Find out how to perceive Turkey’s position within the Western Balkans,” ECFR.EU Coverage Transient, 280, March 13, 2019.
[43] It’s value noting that the Turkish Islamist politics doesn’t have a Universalist tendency or ideology just like the Saudi or Iran. As regards to support, Turkey desires to painting itself as a guardian of the Muslim inhabitants specifically the minorities in Balkans and in weak states like Somalia. Therefore, it shouldn’t be seen as a propagator of sure Islamic ideology within the recipient nation.
[44] Chumakov Alexander, World Research Encyclopedic Dictionary, (USA/Canda: Rodopi, p.470).
[45] Simon P. Watmough, “Turkey, the Rohingya disaster and Erdoğan’s ambitions to be a worldwide Muslim chief,” The Dialog, (September 13, 2017).
[46] ibid
[47] Burhanettin Duran, “Understanding the AK Occasion’s Identification Politics: A Civilizational Discourse and its Limitations,” Perception Turkey, Vol. 15, No. 1 (January 1, 2013), pp. 91-109.
[48] TİKA, “Faaliyet Raporu,” Ankara: Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Company, 2015, p.7.
[49] As an illustration, TIKA distributes one million copy of Quran in Africa (see https://www.dailysabah.com/faith/2015/07/12/tika-to-distribute-1-million-copies-of-the-quran-in-africa).
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