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Again in 2003, the United Nations Convention on Commerce and Growth (UNCTD) hailed the emergence of a world marketplace for company headquarters (CHQs).[1] Multinational firms (MNCs) had been turning into extra internationally cell. They had been relocating their core enterprise features, and typically the worldwide HQ itself, outdoors of their residence nations to whichever nation supplied probably the most aggressive perks. This pattern continues to persist. In 2016, a KPMG report discovered that 76% of the 1,300 CEOs surveyed all over the world had been seeking to relocate their CHQs.[2] Even iconic American firms have determined to maneuver, together with Burger King (to Canada), Budweiser (to Belgium), and Fortunate Strike (to the UK).
Nevertheless, American Massive Tech bucks the pattern. Alphabet, Amazon, Apple, Fb, and Microsoft are the world’s most beneficial MNCs by market capitalization.[3] Their providers mediate virtually each side of our lives, virtually wherever we’re: the instruments we use to work, examine, and play; how we store and work together; the way in which firms function and market their merchandise. Accordingly, they’ve established workplaces and services the world over. Nonetheless, their CHQs have at all times remained in the USA (US).
Due to this fact, this paper asks: why does Massive Tech keep headquartered within the US? For readability, I undertake Markus Menz’s definition of CHQ as “the multimarket agency’s central organizational unit, which is structurally separate from the product and geographic working models, and hosts company executives in addition to central employees features that fulfil numerous worldwide and exterior roles”.[4] I discover that current explanations – equivalent to emotional attachments, small tax obligations, pleasant home rules, and placement bounded human assets – can not absolutely elucidate why Massive Tech stays headquartered at residence. An alternate cause is important.
I argue that Massive Tech stays headquartered at residence to facilitate its intention of centring its company energy within the US. Crucially, this allows Massive Tech to affect the American authorities into advancing its pursuits domestically and internationally. Domestically, Massive Tech shapes authorities rules to enhance its dominance within the American market – its most beneficial market. Internationally, Massive Tech depends upon America’s outsized affect to form worldwide commerce agreements and prolong its market dominance worldwide.
I start by reviewing present explanations to elucidate the theoretical hole on the subject. Subsequent, I introduce the theoretical logic of my argument. I then elaborate on how staying headquartered within the US permits Massive Tech to amass company energy there, and why Massive Tech would wish to amass its company energy within the US. Lastly, I conclude by briefly discussing whether or not Massive Tech’s CHQs would keep within the US, given home stress for regulatory reforms lately.
Literature evaluation
To encourage the paper’s contribution, I reveal that present literature can not absolutely clarify why Massive Tech companies proceed finding their CHQs within the US, whilst they’ve grown into world goliaths.
One widespread rationalization is that Massive Tech founders, main shareholders, and high executives harbour a robust emotional attachment to America, and therefore want their companies to remain headquartered there.[5] In spite of everything, virtually all of them are People whose households and careers are rooted in America.
Whereas this rationalization appears believable at first look, there may be little proof that their emotional attachments do affect their enterprise selections to stay headquartered within the US. This is the reason we nonetheless see iconic US manufacturers that had been based in America and led by People – i.e. Burger King and Seagate Applied sciences – selecting to relocate their CHQs abroad.
One other rationalization is that Massive Tech firms can decrease their tax obligations by remaining headquartered within the US. Massive Tech companies have change into adept at exploiting the company tax loopholes within the US to reduce their liabilities.[6] Between 2018 and 2020, their efficient tax fee was solely 15.4%, which is considerably under the worldwide common of 25.85%.[7]
Nevertheless, tax charges don’t appear to be a key consideration for Massive Tech when selecting to stay headquartered within the US. In any other case, Massive Tech would have shifted their CHQs to a tax haven, such because the Cayman Islands, the place there isn’t a company tax.[8] Furthermore, Massive Tech has change into savvy at avoiding taxes wherever they function, such that there isn’t a want to choose a CHQ location primarily based on decrease tax charges.
A 3rd rationalization is that the human capital of Massive Tech companies is location bounded within the US, making it tough for them to relocate their CHQs abroad. Certainly, the English-speaking specialists main the enterprise operations of Massive Tech are largely People who’re primarily based within the US.[9] Regardless of the worldwide mobility of small cadres of bold professionals, most specialists could be unwilling emigrate abroad for work.[10] Massive Tech companies would wish to step by step exchange these specialists in the event that they had been to relocate their CHQs abroad. This creates sturdy lock-in results amongst them.
This principle has explanatory energy, however can not absolutely seize why Massive Tech stays headquartered at residence. Whereas recruiting and retraining new specialists could be expensive for Massive Tech companies, it’s not an insurmountable activity contemplating that they have already got well-established regional headquarters abroad. Crucially, different issues would possibly take priority over human capital.[11] As an example, iconic British MNCs – equivalent to HSBC – relocated their headquarters abroad after Brexit.[12] This brings us to our final level.
The ultimate rationalization is that American home rules are pleasant to Massive Tech, making the US probably the most superb place to base its core actions and CHQs. Massive Tech companies are most involved with three areas of regulation: antitrust, mental property (IP), and privateness. Crucially, they profit from America’s weak rules throughout all three areas. Antitrust legal guidelines haven’t constrained Massive Tech companies, regardless of their market dominance over a broad vary of digital providers.[13] The weakening of IP legal guidelines impedes smaller companies with disruptive applied sciences from coming into the market and limits their menace to the dominance of Massive Tech.[14] Weak privateness legal guidelines allow Massive Tech to gather and translate consumer information into behavioural information on the market with little transparency or safeguards.[15] Considerably, this allows Massive Tech to reinforce its dominance over the American market, which is of utmost significance as a result of it generates probably the most income for Massive Tech.[16]
This rationalization is compelling however incomplete. For starters, Massive Tech will not be solely involved with the current state of rules, but additionally their capability to affect these rules to ensure their long-term pursuits. Moreover, Massive Tech’s agenda goes past sustaining pleasant home rules, to creating a global regulatory surroundings that protects their pursuits. These two themes usually are not captured within the rationalization.
Due to this fact, there seems to be a theoretical hole in explaining why Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US. The following part outlines a brand new principle to deal with the hole.
Theoretical framework
I argue that staying headquartered within the US facilitates Massive Tech’s strategic endeavour to amass its company energy there. This principle might be damaged down into two propositions, as depicted in Determine 1. First, Massive Tech’s choice to stay headquartered within the US facilitates its endeavour to amass its company energy there. Second, Massive Tech advantages most from amassing its company energy within the US than wherever else on the planet.
I outline “company energy” because the political energy possessed by a company – that’s, its capability to affect the actions, beliefs, or behaviours of others. The “three faces of energy” framework created by Doris Fuchs and Markus Lederer, and developed upon by John Mikler, is helpful for unpacking the complexity of company energy. In response to them, company energy is a operate of an organization’s instrumental, structural, and discursive energy.[17]
Instrumental energy refers to Massive Tech’s capability to straight affect the actions, insurance policies, or selections of presidency officers to favour its pursuits.[18] Massive Tech primarily develops its instrumental energy by lobbying officers in any respect three ranges of presidency (nationwide, state, and native) and all three branches of presidency (legislature, government, and judiciary). It sometimes entails private conferences with authorities officers, and common participation within the official hearings and particular committee periods organised by public businesses.[19]
In distinction, structural energy refers to Massive Tech’s capability to create or reinforce institutional practices that restrict the scope of public consideration to these points that are innocent to them.[20] Massive Tech amasses structural energy because it positive aspects market dominance over a variety of digital providers. It now types the infrastructural core of an ever-expanding tech universe, working as compulsory digital interfaces for all types of social trade – how we work, examine, and play; how we store and work together; how firms function and market their merchandise.
Thirdly, discursive energy refers to Massive Tech’s capability to affect politics and political processes by way of the shaping of norms and concepts.[21] Massive Tech accumulates discursive energy by way of its propaganda marketing campaign. It makes use of ads to alter public perceptions of tech rules. As an example, Fb sponsored articles and ads advocating for “up to date web rules” on socio-political web sites, whose readership consists of authorities officers and public curiosity teams.[22] Massive Tech additionally funds assume tanks and teachers who could analysis, advocate, and publish in its favour, with out essentially disclosing their benefactors.[23] Importantly too, the general public appearances of Massive Tech executives are fastidiously scripted to propagate a pleasant model picture.[24]
Nevertheless, the “three faces of energy” framework at present overlooks an essential attribute of company energy: Company energy – and its constituent powers – is inherently location bounded. Massive Tech may foster its company energy within the US, however this may seemingly not translate into extra company energy within the EU or another nation. Considerably, this creates an issue of shortage for Massive Tech. Massive Tech requires large assets to foster its company energy in anyone nation, however has restricted assets. It should, due to this fact, unfold its assets in keeping with the strategic significance of every nation. The extra essential a rustic is to Massive Tech’s earnings, the extra assets it is going to put into fostering company energy there.
Take into account now that CHQs are the place firms’ key assets are centralized. As such, the situation of a company’s headquarters maximises its capability to build up company energy in that individual nation. That is my principle’s first proposition. I’ll elaborate upon this proposition within the subsequent part, as I element how staying headquartered within the US facilitates Massive Tech’s accumulation of company energy there.
However this begs the query: Why would Massive Tech wish to amass its company energy within the US? This brings us to my principle’s second proposition. My principle suggests two the reason why Massive Tech desires to amass its company energy within the US. First, it permits Massive Tech to protect pleasant home rules within the American market from which it derives probably the most income. Second, it permits Massive Tech to leverage America’s outsized affect in worldwide politics to form worldwide digital agreements and facilitate its world enlargement. These causes shall be elaborated upon within the later part of the paper.
Staying headquartered within the US
This part presents three key items of proof to reveal that Massive Tech’s choice to stay headquartered within the US is pushed by its endeavour to centralize its energy within the US.
Firstly, staying headquartered within the US facilitates Massive Tech’s lobbying efforts, that are primarily focused at American authorities officers. In Determine 2, I evaluate the overall quantity that Massive Tech spent on lobbying policymakers within the US and European Union (EU) from 2013 to 2020.[25] I selected the US and EU as a result of these are the place Massive Tech spends probably the most on lobbying. We observe that Massive Tech spends no less than 2.5 occasions extra lobbying within the US than EU yearly all through the 8 years. This means that Massive Tech prioritizes fostering its instrumental energy within the US than wherever else. Crucially, finding its CHQ within the US permits Massive Tech companies to raised coordinate their lobbying efforts there. Their CHQ every homes a World Authorities Affairs and Public Coverage crew. Staying within the US permits the crew to handle a bigger pool of lobbyists regionally to maintain extra intensive lobbying efforts on the grassroots, state, and federal ranges.[26] As we will look at later, that is essential to sustaining pleasant home rules and entrenching their dominance within the American market, from which they derive probably the most income. The proximity can also be essential to sustaining an in depth collaboration with American authorities officers on shaping worldwide digital agreements.
Secondly, staying headquartered within the US enhances Massive Tech’s “Americanness” amongst Americans and authorities officers. Massive Tech companies have been strategically portraying themselves as People versus another nationalities. They declare to characterize American values of “democracy, competitors, inclusion, and free expression” on the world stage, towards the menacing rise of Chinese language tech which is “extremely censored, state-controlled, and a platform for surveillance”.[27] In addition they declare to be supporting the American economic system and its workforce (greater than wherever else) by way of their investments in home suppliers and producers.[28] Remaining headquartered within the US reinforces its publicized dedication in the direction of being American and contributing to American society, thereby boosting public notion of its “Americanness”. Considerably, this imbues Massive Tech with the discursive energy to assert that its enterprise practices are aligned with America’s public pursuits, and therefore legitimatize its dominance among the many American public and authorities officers.
Thirdly, Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US to strengthen its enterprise ties with the American authorities and domesticate a structural dependency on it. Massive Tech’s proximity to politicians and bureaucrats throughout all ranges of presidency permits it to entry extra alternatives for closed tenders, achieve insights on tender necessities behind closed doorways, and galvanise assist for its bid. Furthermore, staying headquartered within the US strengths its “Americanness”, which permits it to entry authorities tenders that contain essential public providers, equivalent to navy defence, inside safety, and public healthcare. As such, between 2010 and 2018, Massive Tech companies have collectively secured greater than 5,000 contracts with federal businesses.[29] They’ve been instrumental to the modernization of the US navy below the Division of Defence (DoD).[30] Moreover, their applied sciences help the Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s (ICE) arrests, detentions, and deportations of immigrants.[31] Importantly too, Massive Tech companies have been the first supply of consumer information for the Nationwide Safety Company’s (NSA) home and worldwide surveillance programmes.[32]
Considerably, this augments Massive Tech’s structural energy over the American authorities. Massive Tech asserts that its “market dimension” permits it to maintain its investments into growing the community infrastructure that public businesses and unusual People depend upon.[33] Stringent rules to weaken their market dimension would solely impede improvements and hurt American pursuits. Due to this fact, even because the American authorities recognises the specter of Massive Tech’s dominance to shoppers and democracy, it stays cautious of regulating them.
Centring company energy within the US
To date, I’ve demonstrated that Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US to facilitate its intention of centring its company energy there. This part will elaborate on why Massive Tech desires to amass its company energy within the US within the first place.
Preserving pleasant home rules within the American market
One cause is that Massive Tech companies prioritize sustaining their dominance within the American market, as a result of it’s the most beneficial market to them. The American market is Massive Tech’s largest income.[34] American shoppers have probably the most disposable earnings to buy Massive Tech’s services and products. American companies make investments closely in e-commerce, promoting, and different digital providers supplied by Massive Tech to succeed in native and worldwide shoppers from the US. The American authorities additionally provides massive public tasks to Massive Tech. In consequence, Massive Tech is most anxious about sustaining its dominance within the American market, which compels them to remain headquartered within the US. I’ll draw upon the instance of US privateness legal guidelines as an example my case.
Staying headquartered within the US has facilitated Massive Tech’s lobbying efforts to keep up lax privateness legal guidelines regionally. The US helps self-regulation and lacks a complete framework on private information such because the one offered by the EU’s Normal Information Safety Regulation (GDPR). In consequence, American shoppers’ privateness rights are poorly protected, permitting Massive Tech firms to use their private information for industrial use.[35]
Leveraging its proximity to US policymakers on the federal and state stage, Massive Tech has been actively lobbying them to withstand public demand for extra stringent privateness legal guidelines. At Capitol Hill, Massive Tech has straight lobbied 4 committees in Congress with jurisdiction over privateness laws: the Home Judiciary Committee, the Home Power and Commerce Committee, the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. 94% of the members of those have acquired a monetary contribution from Massive Tech in 2020. Democrats and Republicans alike benefitted from these funds, which totalled greater than $3 million.[36] Consequently, Congress has did not reform its privateness laws or strengthen the enforcement of its current privateness rules.
Massive Tech’s efforts additionally prolong to state policymakers. It has been seeding water-down “privateness” laws in states to pre-empt larger safety. To date, it has lobbied policymakers in additional than 20 states, 14 of which has adopted state privateness payments endorsed by Massive Tech however deemed too weak for shoppers by privateness advocates.[37]
General, this instance demonstrates how staying headquartered within the US strengthens Massive Tech’s instrumental energy in preserving pleasant rules within the American market, which is by far its most beneficial client market.
Leveraging America’s outsized affect in worldwide politics
The second cause why Massive Tech centralises its company energy within the US is to leverage America’s outsized affect in worldwide digital commerce to advance its agenda. Because the UNCTAD notes, the worldwide digital commerce agenda “displays the pursuits of the key digital homeowners and their famous person companies, that are reaping first-move benefits”.[38] Once more, this motivates Massive Tech to remain headquartered within the US. I illustrate this case by way of the current worldwide repeal of digital-service taxes.
Massive Tech efficiently collaborated with the US authorities to fend off proposals by European nations, UK, India, Indonesia, and Brazil to levy digital-service taxes on massive tech firms. On the OECD and G20 conferences in July 2021, the US warned that it deemed such digital-service taxes as discriminatory towards American tech firms. As an alternative, the US spearheaded an settlement to create a world minimal 15% company tax fee and scrape digital-service taxes.[39] Whereas Massive Tech firms will nonetheless must pay extra taxes abroad below the worldwide tax settlement, the worldwide adoption of digital-service taxes would have value them extra.
Considerably, Massive Tech’s proximity to US policymakers enabled them to form their agenda at these talks. Via its community of connections throughout the federal authorities (solid by way of federal contracts, lobbying, and its public picture), Massive Tech persuaded US officers that the digital-service taxes threatened their competitiveness abroad and due to this fact not directly harms the American economic system. It maintained direct contact with US officers by way of common conferences in Capitol Hill. Crucially, it supplied recommendations on how the US can intervene to guard them, and helped to galvanise assist amongst worldwide policymakers on the behalf of US policymakers.[40]
This instance displays how Massive Tech leveraged its structural and discursive energy to influence the US authorities into defending its pursuits (and therefore market dominance) internationally. These powers had been, partly, enhanced by Massive Tech’s proximity to the US policymakers.
Conclusion
Regardless of home stress to manage them lately, Massive Tech will seemingly stay headquartered within the US. As mentioned, Massive Tech enjoys large advantages from centring its company energy within the US than wherever else. One cause is that it permits Massive Tech to protect pleasant home rules within the American market, from which it derives probably the most income. Another excuse is that it permits Massive Tech to leverage America’s outsized affect to form worldwide digital agreements. In flip, this motivates Massive Tech to remain headquartered within the US, as a result of it facilitates their amassing of company energy there. General, this paper is an try at growing a brand new principle to elucidate why Massive Tech stays headquartered within the US, however extra empirical testing is important. Particularly, a small-N comparative case examine between Massive Tech and different American firms which have relocated their CHQs would possibly yield extra insights.
Notes
[1] “World Marketplace for Company HQs Rising,” United Nations Convention on Commerce and Growth (UNCTD), accessed October 20, 2021, https://unctad.org/press-material/world-market-corporate-hqs-emerging.
[2] Carmen Raluca Stoian, “Why Massive Companies Transfer Their Headquarters Across the World,” The Dialog, accessed October 20, 2021, https://theconversation.com/why-big-businesses-move-their-headquarters-around-the-world-tax-talent-and-trepidation-110913.
[3] “Largest tech Firms by Market Cap,” Firms Market Cap, accessed October 20, 2021, https://companiesmarketcap.com/tech/largest-tech-companies-by-market-cap/.
[4] Markus Menz, Sven Kunisch and David J. Collis, “The Company Headquarters within the Up to date Company: Advancing a Multimarket Agency Perspective,” Academy of Administration Annals 9, no. 1 (Jan 2015): 633-714, https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520.2015.1027050.
[5] Klaus E. Meyer and Gabriel R.G. Benito, “The place Do MNEs Find Their Headquarters? At Residence!” World Technique Journal 6, No.2 (Might 2016): 149-159, https://doi-org.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/10.1002/gsj.1115.
[6] Tomoshizu Kawase, Maki Sagami and Tokio Murakami, “Massive Tech Tax Burdens Are Simply 60% of World Common,” Nikkei Asia, accessed October 20, 2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Highlight/Datawatch/Massive-Tech-tax-burdens-are-just-60-of-global-average.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Tax Justice Community, “Company Tax Haven Index – 2021 Outcomes”, accessed October 20, 2021, https://cthi.taxjustice.web/en/cthi/cthi-2021-results.
[9] Kate Rooney and Yasmin Khorram, “Tech Firms Say They Worth Variety, However Reviews Present Little Change in Final Six Years,” CNBC, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/12/six-years-into-diversity-reports-big-tech-has-made-little-progress.html.
[10] Patrick Adler and Richard Florida, “Geography as Technique: The Altering Geography Of Company Headquarters In Submit-Industrial Capitalism,” Regional Research 54, no.5 (August 2019): 610-620. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2019.1634803.
[11] Patrick Adler and Richard Florida, “Geography as Technique,” 615.
[12] Toby Helm, “UK Corporations Plan to Shift Throughout Channel After Brexit Chaos,” The Guardian, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jan/30/uk-firms-plan-to-shift-across-channel-after-brexit-chaos.
[13] Sheelah Kolhatkar, “What’s Subsequent for the Marketing campaign to Break Up Massive Tech,” The New Yorker, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.newyorker.com/enterprise/foreign money/whats-next-for-the-campaign-to-break-up-big-tech
[14] Jonathan M. Barnett, “Why Massive Tech Likes Weak IP,” CATO Establishment, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.cato.org/regulation/spring-2021/why-big-tech-likes-weak-ip.
[15] Asuncion Esteve, “The Enterprise of Private Information: Google, Fb, and Privateness Points within the EU and the USA,” Worldwide Information Privateness Legislation 7, no.1 (February 2017): 36-47.
[16] Omri Wallach, “How Massive Tech Makes Their Billions,” Visible Capitalist, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.visualcapitalist.com/how-big-tech-makes-their-billions-2020/.
[17] Mikler, The Political Energy of World Firms (Cambridge: Polity, 2018), 33.
[18] Ibid, 35.
[19] Anthony J. Nownes, Whole Lobbying: What Lobbyists Need (And How They Attempt to Get It) (Cambridge: Cambridge College Press, 2012), 12-36.
[20] Mikler, World Firms, 40.
[21] Ibid, 45.
[22] Jane Chung, “Massive Tech, Massive Money: Washington’s New Energy Gamers,” Public Citizen, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.citizen.org/article/big-tech-lobbying-update/.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Malminderjit Singh, “Commentary: Massive Tech is Exhibiting Some Love To the US Authorities – Which Comes As No Shock,” Channel Information Asia, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/commentary/tech-advocacy-lobbying-government-relations-policy-845761.
[25] OpenSecrets, Lobbying Information, (October 20, 2021), https://www.opensecrets.org; LobbyFacts, Lobbying Information, (October 20, 2021), https://lobbyfacts.eu.
[26] Nownes, Whole Lobbying, 12-36.
[27] Anna Thompson, “Understanding Why Some Say China’s Web Mannequin Ought to Be Stopped,” Cincinnati Public Radio, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.wvxu.org/local-news/2020-11-02/understanding-why-some-say-chinas-internet-model-should-be-stoppped.
[28] Apple, “Apple Accelerates US Funding and Job Creation,” Apple Newsroom, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.apple.com/sg/newsroom/2018/01/apple-accelerates-us-investment-and-job-creation/.
[29] Jack Poulson, “Reviews of a Silicon Valley/Army Divide Have Been Tremendously Exaggerated,” Tech Inquiry, accessed October 20, 2021, https://techinquiry.org/SiliconValley-Army.
[30] Todd Harrison, “Battle Networks and the Future Pressure,” Heart for Strategic and Worldwide Research, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.csis.org/evaluation/battle-networks-and-future-force.
[31] Mijente, Immigrant Protection Undertaking and the Nationwide Immigration Undertaking of the Nationwide Legal professionals Guild, “Who’s Behind ICE?”, Mijente, accessed October 20, 2021, https://mijente.web/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/WHO’S-BEHIND-ICE_-The-Tech-and-Information-Firms-Fueling-Deportations-_v1.pdf.
[32] Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani, “NSA Infiltrates Hyperlinks to Yahoo, Google Information Facilities Worldwide, Snowden Paperwork Say,” The Washington Submit, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-infiltrates-links-to-yahoo-google-data-centers-worldwide-snowden-documents-say/2013/10/30/e51d661e-4166-11e3-8b74-d89d714ca4dd_story.html.
[33] Foo Yun Chee, “Apple Denies Dominant Place Amid Antitrust Investigation,” Reuters, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.reseller.co.nz/article/681002/apple-denies-dominant-position-amid-antitrust-investigation/.
[34] Omri Wallach, “How Massive Tech Makes Their Billions,” Visible Capitalist, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.visualcapitalist.com/how-big-tech-makes-their-billions-2020/.
[35] Esteve, “The Enterprise of Private Information,” 40.
[36] Chung, “Massive Tech, Massive Money.”
[37] Todd Feathers, “Massive Tech Is Pushing States to Cross Privateness Legal guidelines, and Sure, You Ought to Be Suspicious,” The Markup, accessed October 20, 2021, https://themarkup.org/privateness/2021/04/15/big-tech-is-pushing-states-to-pass-privacy-laws-and-yes-you-should-be-suspicious.
[38] United Nations Convention on Commerce and Growth (UNCTAD), “What’s At Stake for Growing Nations in Commerce Negotiations on E-commerce,” UNCTAD, https://unctad.org/system/information/official-document/ditctncd2020d5_en.pdf.
[39] Leigh Thomas, “130 Nations Again World Minimal Company Tax of 15%,” World Financial Discussion board, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/oecd-global-minimum-corporate-tax.
[40] Mark Scott and Emily Birnbaum, “How Washington and Massive Tech received the World Tax Struggle,” Politico, accessed October 20, 2021, https://www.politico.eu/article/washington-big-tech-tax-talks-oecd/.
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