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It is a pre-print excerpt from Decolonizing Politics and Theories from the Abya Yala (forthcoming 2022, E-Worldwide Relations).
Every nation interprets the worth of every good from a unique axiological scheme of preconceptions. That is the explanation why the ethical assumptions of every nation battle within the try to achieve a world settlement to pursue environmental justice. It turns into tough to coordinate an axiological hierarchy that prioritizes environmental items over financial items. The denial of this precedence arises from the idea that ‘man’ and ‘nature’ are two reverse ideas. The Ecuadorian economist Alberto Acosta (2010) factors out that the supposed antagonism between human beings and Nature ‘is the start line to grasp the conquest and colonization of America, which crystallized cruel exploitation of pure sources’ (17; my translation). In contrast, within the Quechua custom, in addition to in different Indigenous traditions, we discover a relational idea of Nature.
Though the Quechua idea of sumak kawsay is comparatively current, additionally it is deeply rooted in a conception of the human being in everlasting relationship with Nature. The overall that means of this idea is said to residing in concord with Nature and neighborhood (Hidalgo, Arias, and Ávila 2014, 29–73). The axiological battle between environmental items and financial items is demolished, as a result of each are a part of the construction of ‘good residing’ or ‘life in fullness’. International locations like Ecuador or Bolivia have included this idea of their new political constitutions (Asamblea Constituyente de Ecuador 2008; Asamblea Constituyente de Bolivia 2009). Nonetheless, their very own ethical assumptions usually present robust colonial affect.
That are the ethical foundations that might maintain a world coverage with a purpose to pursue environmental justice? This philosophical query is hidden within the background of the current analysis, however it isn’t meant to be answered in its entirety. Since there are innumerable methods to reply that query, this chapter limits it to a specific case: might the Quechua idea sumak kawsay be one in every of these ethical foundations? The reply (speculation) that’s argued is affirmative and relies on Latin American authors akin to: Eduardo Gudynas, Enrique Dussel, Alberto Acosta, Yuri Guandinango, Verónica Andino, Ana María Larrea and Salvador Schavelzon. The strategy used to reply this query is the essential analectic, structured by Dussel in his effort to discover a decolonial methodology. In line with this technique, the target of this analysis is to dialogue in regards to the Quechua idea sumak kawsay inside the alterity of various ethical foundations for worldwide environmental insurance policies, such because the idea of improvement.
Dussel’s essential analectic technique
The Mexican thinker Enrique Dussel perceives the try to formulate a decolonial philosophy with Eurocentric strategies as a setback. That’s the reason he sees the need of a brand new methodology based mostly on the essential examine of the Hegelian dialectics and the Aristotelian technique of analogy. To assume that Dussel’s technique is then Aristotelian-Hegelian could be a complete misinterpretation. Quite the opposite, the analectic technique is born as a criticism of different strategies and stands by itself deserves.
In Método para una filosofía de la liberación [Method for a philosophy of liberation], Dussel (1974) introduces the analectic second by clarifying the idea of alterity: ‘the opposite, for us, is Latin America with respect to the European totality; it’s the poor and oppressed Latin American folks with respect to the dominating however dependent oligarchies’ (181–182; my translation). Dussel’s different just isn’t an absolute alterity as Levinas describes the opposite’s face. In accordance with the Mexican thinker, the totality is univocal; the univocity is id. Then, the totality is against alterity.
The analectic technique begins with the popularity of the opposite as free, as past the system of totality; subsequently begins from the revelation of the opposite and, trusting in his phrase, works, serves, creates (Dussel 1974, 182). Religion within the different’s phrase, an anthropological religion, is the precondition of this analectic second.
In accordance with Dussel (1974), the dialectical technique is the dominating enlargement of the totality from itself; the passage from efficiency to the act of the identical (182). After this criticism, he affords an artificial definition of the analectic technique, that’s: ‘the passage to the truthful progress of the totality from the opposite and to “serve” (the opposite) creatively’ (182; my translation). The essential analectic technique includes an train of discovering similarities within the potentialities of polysemy, as he later explains in a category on this technique (Dussel 2016).
The described technique guides the goals of the current chapter. As said above, this analysis goals to dialogue in regards to the Quechua idea sumak kawsay inside the alterity of various ethical foundations for worldwide environmental insurance policies. With the intention to obtain this basic goal, it’s essential to undergo a essential step and an analectic second.
The primary particular goal considerations the essential stage: the aim is to query the ethical assumptions of the idea improvement as the muse of worldwide insurance policies. The explanation why it’s essential to query this idea lies in its colonial affect and its dangerous penalties for the setting. Moreover, a lot of the talked about Latin American authors oppose the idea of improvement to the decolonial different of sumak kawsay. The second particular goal considerations the analectic stage, begin from the phrase of the opposite: the proposal is to grasp the polysemy of the idea in Quechua sumak kawsay as a attainable ethical basis for environmental insurance policies. The levels of the analectic technique will culminate in what Dussel calls thefair progress of the totality from the opposite and to serve (the opposite) creatively. Due to this fact, the essential examine of the idea of improvement will deliver alternate options based mostly on totally different ethical assumptions with a purpose to cut back the environmental impression.
It’s essential to make clear that this chapter doesn’t try to investigate Abya Yala’s environmental insurance policies usually. Its method doesn’t belong to the realm of political science or worldwide regulation. The reflection intends to be philosophical and presents some potentialities of understanding relatively than concrete realities. This analysis is restricted to the axiological and ethical scope of recent constitutional proposals from two particular nations: Ecuador and Bolivia. The examine of the idea of sumak kawsay linked to the relational Andean worldview goals to query the economy-focused conception of Nature. For that reason, it’s carried out from the attitude of a essential take a look at standard improvement. That’s the reason the time period Abya Yala is used to refer Latin America, as a result of it means ‘Mature Land’, in accordance with the historic Kuna Indigenous group (Carrera and Ruiz 2016, 12). Given the maturity of this land, it doesn’t make sense to place right here the underdevelopment label.
Crucial description of the idea ‘improvement’
The International Forest Watch’s ‘World forest map and tree cowl change information’(2020) reveals that Bolivia ranks fourth among the many nations with the very best lack of main forests. An etiological examine of deforestation on this nation, between 2000 and 2010, remarks the three principal direct causes: livestock in sown pastures, mechanized agriculture and small-scale agriculture (Müller et al. 2014, 20). From that decade to the current, the causes stay the identical. These have solely develop into stronger and stronger. Regardless of the immense meals manufacturing at the price of the destruction of main forests, 15.5% of the inhabitants of this similar nation is undernourished (FAO et al. 2020, 8). This unlucky irony stems from the hope of financial progress based mostly on the export of uncooked supplies.
In accordance with Alberto Acosta (2010), from the conquest and colonization of America ‘an extractivist scheme was solid to export Nature from the colonies based mostly on the capital accumulation calls for of the metropolises’ (17; my translation). The contradiction between precarious meals safety and unbridled meals manufacturing in Bolivia is the results of an financial scheme based 5 centuries in the past within the midst of colonial violence.
As a colonial residue, growing nations conceive improvement as blind financial progress with out many environmental concerns. Brazil, the nation with the very best lack of main forests (International Forest Watch 2020), carries the slogan of Order and progress on its flag. It’s below dialogue whether or not Brazil needs to be thought of a growing nation or not. This dialogue considers financial progress greater than its ranges of inequality, excessive poverty, and environmental impression.
Amartya Sen (2000) describes as ‘slim views of improvement those that establish improvement with the expansion of gross nationwide product, or with the rise in private incomes, or with industrialization, or with technological advance, or with social modernization’ (3). These slim views had their penalties on the established order of an unfair and anthropocentric construction. In accordance with the Ecuadorian anthropologist Ana María Larrea (2010), the idea of improvement was constructed from a colonialist perspective and is now in disaster as a result of poor outcomes it has generated all through the world (15; my translation). These poor outcomes embrace environmental impression, starvation, inequality, and so on. Most likely, due to these penalties, such a improvement can’t be sustained all through time. This tempo of indefinite progress essentially implies a collapse as a result of traits of the pure world, therefore the necessity to mix the idea of improvement with sustainability.
Though for Wolfgang Sachs (1999) the sustainable improvement mixture is an oxymoron, not less than its intention provides us a bit hope. The Uruguayan researcher Eduardo Gudynas (2003) distinguishes between conventional improvement and sustainable improvement, criticizing the primary one with out ceasing to debate the second.
The proposal is to criticize the idea of improvement however to not destroy it radically. It might be Manichean to assume that the biased conception of improvement is in charge for all of the ills that have an effect on the setting and the human neighborhood. Moreover, it might be unfair to disregard the virtues that this mannequin has offered on the potential of structuring giant populations, granting sure meals safety to a relative majority. Nonetheless, it might even be naive to assume that standard improvement truly improves our scenario in some respects with out making it worse in others. As well as, it improves the scenario of some beings making it worse for others.
In accordance with Gudynas and Acosta (2011), within the Nineteen Forties, the idea of improvement outlined as a progressive linearity or as the other of underdevelopment started to be formalized (73). Nevertheless, the authors level out that in actuality ‘what’s noticed on the planet is a generalized “dangerous improvement”, current even in nations thought of as developed’ (Gudynas and Acosta 2011, 73; my translation). The connection between this dangerous improvement and the gradual destruction of the setting is decisive. The belief of blind progressive linearity causes progressive injury as properly. One of these ethical assumption, the place the very best good is financial worth, interrupts worldwide treaties geared toward defending the setting. Essentially the most stunning factor about this assumption is its skill to disregard the irreducible relationship between economics and environmental justice.
One of many principal notions connected to the progressive destruction of the pure wealth of the growing nations is extractivism. Gudynas (2015) defines this idea as ‘a kind of extraction of pure sources, in giant quantity or excessive depth, that are basically oriented to be exported as uncooked supplies with none processing or with minimal processing’ (13; my translation). One of these export condemns the Abya Yala nations to the bottom revenue in financial phrases and the very best loss in environmental phrases. Furthermore, in accordance with the aforementioned examine, third technology extractivisms have been the reason for most social conflicts in Latin America (Gudynas 2015, 24). The Uruguayan researcher not solely denounces the environmental penalties of extractivism, but in addition its social issues and ethical conflicts.
Gudynas dedicates an entire part to ethics and values within the conclusions of his e book Extractivismos: ecología, economía y política de un modo de entender el desarrollo y la Naturaleza [Extractivisms: ecology, economics and politics from a way of understanding development and Nature](2015). On this part, he factors out that there’s an axiological element that cuts throughout all ranges: ‘from the cultural bases of improvement methods to extractivist implementations with all their environmental, financial, political and social implications’ (433; my translation). In accordance with Gudynas, this element is the results of an anthropocentric ethic the place ‘values are solely assigned by human beings, they usually prevail immediately linked to human advantages and desires’ (434). The current chapter considers that not even human advantages and desires are prioritized, because the environmental impression has huge damaging penalties on the well-being of essentially the most weak sectors of the human neighborhood. What is usually prioritized is a break up financial worth, briefly separated from its quick materials worth.
Gudynas (2015) provides that the ‘restoration of different values in nature, and specifically when its personal rights are acknowledged, just isn’t solely an antidote to extractivism, however can also be a substitute for that anthropocentric ethic’ (434; my translation). The ethical assumptions of conventional improvement are decided by the conception of ‘nature’.
Within the Eighties, a brand new flip within the conceptions of nature started with a perspective originated within the financial system: ‘from totally different beginning factors and conceptual choices, a number of authors started to contemplate nature as a type of capital’ (Gudynas 2003, 23; my translation). A pattern of such a economy-focused conception is the extensively used expression of pure sources. This explains the truth that nations like Bolivia or Brazil see deforestation as a type of financial progress. Developmental extractivism condemns these nations to their very own put on and tear. Worldwide logic forces them to decide on this type of financial system, as a result of the ethical basis of this logic lies within the polysemic worth of progress.
As a result of polysemy of the idea of improvement or progress, it may be used for very totally different functions, even opposite to one another. A logical consequence of conceiving nature as a type of capital is the interpretation of financial progress because the exploitation of this capital. In contrast, more moderen notions akin to sustainability embrace preserving the setting as a part of improvement. For that reason, whether it is interpreted within the earlier sense, the time period sustainable improvement itself could sound contradictory.
Nevertheless, even within the sustainability of a improvement extra courteous with nature there are additionally ethical assumptions that Gudynas would name anthropocentric. Moreover, Sachs’s critique of the idea of sustainable improvement reveals that this try to protect the setting is finally an try to protect the tempo of financial progress.
In an article entitled ‘Los derechos de la naturaleza en serio: respuestas y aportes desde la ecología política [The rights of Nature seriously: responses and contributions from political ecology]’ (2011), Gudynas raises the next argument: ‘if the rights of nature are taken significantly, their very own values seem, but in addition the chains of an solely financial valuation are damaged’ (255; my translation). What the current chapter proposes is a decolonizing effort to take significantly the rights of nature.
Sumak kawsay as a attainable ethical basis for environmental insurance policies
The economy-focused conception of nature leads the paradigm of standard improvement in Latin American nations. Nonetheless, cultures that bestow on nature an immense and even sacred worth nonetheless inhabit many of those nations. The instances that match the aim of this chapter are Bolivia and Ecuador.
Though in Bolivia and Ecuador there are licensed opinions that promote extractivism, there’s additionally an try to discover within the Andean custom alternate options to the dominant conception of nature. Given the oral character of this custom, there’s a risk that the idea of sumak kawsay could also be truly a brand new building. Yuri Guandinango (2013) factors out that this notion ‘just isn’t specific in Indigenous communities; since a lot of the communities of the Ecuadorian highlands are traversed by historic processes which have reconfigured the experiential practices; such is the case of agroecological and sociocultural methods’ (14; my translation). Nonetheless, most certainly this notion is in line with a relational conception of nature that’s deeply rooted in an Indigenous worldview.
Pablo Mamani (2011, as cited in Schavelzon 2015) lists the phrases that might approximate a definition or translation of the idea of sumak kawsay: ‘richness of life’; ‘understanding learn how to dwell life’; ‘angle’; ‘be stuffed with nice coronary heart’; and even ‘good die’. In Bolivia, the state assumes as a precept the Aymara model of excellent residing: sumaj qamaña. Javier Medina (2001) interprets it to the next phrases: ‘good life’, ‘life high quality’, ‘wellbeing’, ‘way of life’, ‘good residing’, ‘happiness’, ‘pleasure’, ‘felicity’ (26). Xavier Albó (2011) proposes different definitions for qamaña: ‘dwell’, ‘dwell’, ‘relaxation’, ‘shelter’ and ‘care for others’. Consequently, in accordance with Albó, the interpretation of sumaj qamaña is: ‘good residing collectively or residing properly collectively’. Concerning the polysemy of those phrases in Quechua and Aymara, Salvador Schavelzon (2015) says: ‘the problem in defining a signifier tells us in regards to the starting of a journey the place conceptions of life and totally different worlds are translated and delimited for the development of political ideas’ (181; my translation). Nevertheless, because of this phenomenon, it’s attainable to use Dussel’s analectic technique, the place totally different horizons dialogue resulting from a risk of analogy in polysemy.
The brand new constitutions of Ecuador and Bolivia introduce the ideas of sumak kawsay and sumaj qamaña as a political venture. Article 275 of Constitución de la República de Ecuador (2008) factors out: ‘The event regime is the organized, sustainable and dynamic set of financial, political, socio-cultural and environmental methods, which assure the conclusion of the nice residing, from sumak kawsay’ (135; my translation). Since, in its structure, Ecuador is introduced as a republic and never as a plurinational state, the precept of sumak kawsay is utilized as a generality. Within the Bolivian case, sumaj qamaña is an ethical-moral precept amongst numerous ideas from different nations of the state. Article 8 of the Second Chapter of Constitución Política del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (2009; my translation) establishes: ‘The State assumes and promotes as ethical-moral ideas of plural society: ama qhilla, ama llulla, ama sua (don’t be lazy, don’t be a liar, don’t be a thief), suma qamaña (good residing), ñandereko (harmonious life), teko kavi (good life), ivi maraei (land with out evil) and qhapaj ñan (noble means or life)’. The ideas extracted from the Guaraní custom don’t conflict with the relational notion of nature attribute of the sumak kawsay. Particularly ñandereko and teko kavi have a formidable resemblance to the Andean ideas of excellent life. Though it might be silly to confuse these notions as if they’d the identical meanings and have been originated in the identical traditions, they might all be introduced as alternate options to traditional financial improvement.
Yuri Guadinango (2013) separates the lecturers who clarify the discourse of excellent residing from totally different views into three teams in accordance with their positions: ‘the followers of group A promote good residing as a substitute for improvement; these in group B place good residing according to twenty first century socialism; and people in group C perceive good residing as a part of improvement theories’ (19; my translation). This chapter belongs particularly to the place of group A, as a result of group C means that the idea of sumak kawsay could develop into a reinforcement of the dominant paradigm of conventional improvement. Nevertheless, there are causes to current this idea as a really totally different different resulting from its risk of founding environmental insurance policies: (1) the Andean relational worldview; (2) the criticism of the logic of capital accumulation; (3) the popularity of intrinsic values in nature.
What does the notion of Andean relational worldview imply? This primary cause is linked to what Gudynas and Acosta (2011) known as a ‘house occupied by the concepts encompassed below the label of “Good Residing”’ (76; my translation). These ‘concepts originated in conventional Andean information, centered on the well-being of individuals and defenders of one other kind of relationship with the setting, rapidly managed to affect the controversy on improvement, and develop into new alternate options to it’ (Gudynas and Acosta 2011, 76; my translation). The worldview that considerations the idea of Good Residing doesn’t conceive of the human being as a topic separated from the article so-called nature. The human being is just one a part of the chakana, the ‘bridge on the high’, which unites nature, the religious world, the human neighborhood and the ancestors (Flores Rengifo 2018). Though sumak kawsay just isn’t a purely ancestral idea and is blended with very current political tasks, the coherence between this idea and the relational construction of the Andean conventional conception of nature is infamous. Within the Andean relational worldview, we aren’t the masters and antagonists of nature, however solely part of the relation between all beings which can be united by the chakana. Good Residing just isn’t mere human well-being, however relatively a sure concord of complementarity between all beings.
It’s exactly this worldview that challenges improvement to decentralize its anthropocentric method. As Verónica Andino (2010) asserts, ‘the problem posed by the Sumak Kawsay paradigm is to consciously dislodge the logic of capital accumulation, with its corollary within the idea of improvement, from the central place it occupied within the imaginary of the Ecuadorians of what a greater society represents’ (101; my translation). That is the aforementioned second cause: the criticism of the logic of capital accumulation. If the middle is not the human being however the chakana, then the economy-focused logic loses its that means. With the ethical foundations displaced, the edifice of standard improvement collapses and another risk of grounding environmental insurance policies emerges.
Why environmental insurance policies particularly? That is what the third cause is geared toward: the popularity of intrinsic values in nature. The 2 earlier causes converge on this one. The decentralization of worth permits for ethical diversification. The next assertion is the philosophical grievance of Gudynas (2015): ‘dissolution of ethics is what makes tolerable the repeated violation of the rights of individuals and of nature as a method of extractionist imposition’ (434; my translation). Due to this fact, a reconstruction of an ethic that takes significantly the rights of nature is a sine qua non situation for the proposal of inexperienced insurance policies. Gudynas provides: ‘For that reason, conceptions akin to Good Residing or the rights of nature are undoubtedly alternate options, however they develop into substantial when selling moral adjustments that open the doorways to different valuations, thus producing penalties on many ranges’ (Gudynas 2015, 434; my translation). These penalties are immediately associated to a mitigation of our environmental impression.
The three causes introduced assist the understanding of sumak kawsay in its place risk of ethical basis of environmental insurance policies. The polysemy of this time period is a fertile subject for dialogue. That is the explanation why this idea represents a decolonial level the place the nationwide horizon of Ecuador and Bolivia can meet the worldwide horizon of the remainder of Abya Yala. Environmental insurance policies are inevitably worldwide insurance policies as a result of even home provisions can have an effect on the remainder of the world. Due to this fact, it’s essential to search for totally different ideas akin to sumak kawsay that may signify extra nations of their polysemy than these which can be represented by the univocal idea of standard improvement.
Conclusions
Is the Quechua idea sumak kawsay one of many attainable ethical foundations that might maintain a world coverage with a purpose to pursue environmental justice? All through this chapter, an affirmative reply has been argued. In addition to different notions of the varied cultures of Abya Yala, the idea of sumak kawsay is a fertile ethical basis for the pursuit and consolidation of worldwide insurance policies that promote environmental justice.
The argumentation has gone by two methodological moments to achieve that conclusion. Step one was a essential examine: the idea of standard developmentwas questioned for its penalties on the setting. The studying of Gudynas, Acosta and Larrea revealed that this idea relies on the colonial financial system consolidated later by industrial manufacturing calls for. The second methodological second was analectic: the polysemy of the idea in Quechua sumak kawsay was understood as a risk of ethical basis for inexperienced insurance policies. ‘Life in fullness’is conditioned by concord with nature and neighborhood. Because of this the financial values that concern the satisfaction of the human wants don’t contradict the environmental values. The explanation lies within the relational conception of nature. This idea might represent a decolonial ethical basis for inexperienced insurance policies as a result of it supplies alternate options to traditional improvement.
Sumak kawsay just isn’t a magical idea that may routinely remedy all of the environmental challenges of our time, however it could possibly be an ethical basis different to the one which conceives nature solely based mostly on financial standards. This basis constitutes an axiological system that might morally base worldwide agreements with a purpose to protect the setting in Abya Yala. At the very least there’s already a degree in frequent between Ecuador and Bolivia, which Dussel would name analectic.
When the nationwide decision-making threatens environmental justice, worldwide concerns should begin from the dialogue of ethical assumptions in direction of the seek for alternate options, totally different from the conceptual construction that led to the dangerous penalties. The premise that helps this conclusion is that even inside a rustic that causes and suffers an environmental impression, there could also be axiological hierarchies in battle, additionally conditioned by the dominant paradigm on a world scale.
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