[ad_1]
That is This can be a pre-print excerpt from Decolonizing Politics and Theories from the Abya Yala. You possibly can obtain the e-book freed from cost from E-Worldwide Relations.
It’s well-known that a lot of the financial principle is formulated within the Western world (principally U.S.A. and England), the place it has achieved a better standing throughout the social sciences. Nevertheless, the expertise within the Latin American international locations (LAC) alongside the 20th Century in making use of the insurance policies derived from these theories to propel financial improvement has been disappointing at finest. One of the vital notable efforts for making a physique of labor that addressed the precise issues confronted by the LAC has been the Latin American Structuralist Faculty within the Nineteen Fifties. Following a bunch of distinguished authors throughout the area – Raúl Prebisch in Argentina, Aníbal Pinto in Chile, Celso Furtado, Fernando Cardoso and Enzo Faletto in Brazil, and Juan Noyola in Mexico – this college of thought was in a position to construct an analytical toolbox able to precisely diagnosing the foundation causes of the ills skilled within the LAC. These efforts offered the governments with the required instruments to implement financial coverage applications that led to an accelerated industrialization, the growth of the home market, excellent financial progress and rising dwelling requirements for the following couple of a long time (Bértola and Ocampo 2010).
A very long time has handed since these concepts had been set in movement to generate one of the affluent durations skilled in Latin America, and a lot of the economies within the area have gone by way of a giant transformation. The secondary sector, particularly manufacturing, has change into a key sector within the largest economies, and a few of them even have developed a big high-tech export base (Moreno-Brid and Ros 2004, 184). Based on the ideas of structuralism, a better industrial base was a needed situation for improvement, because it was anticipated to foster technological progress, elevate productiveness, and reallocate labor into extra productive actions (Prebisch 1983) settling the premise for larger wages and a greater distribution of earnings.
Though it’s debatable if the primary two propositions turned true or not, one can hardly say the identical for the propositions referring to the labor market. It’s noticeably clear that the labor situations had not proven a lot enchancment in contrast with the interval wherein the Latin American Structuralist Faculty (LASS any longer) concepts had been set in movement exhibiting stagnant wages, excessive informality charges, and poor job high quality. Within the current paper, we argue that this incapability for enchancment comes from implementing the coverage prescriptions coming from western pondering, which emphasizes the function of the market forces and pushes for deregulation, recommending measures like decreasing collective bargaining and low minimal wages (Ros 2015, 51–72).
With a purpose to have an improved coverage response for these unresolved points concerning the labor market, it is very important have an analytical framework that permits us to correctly diagnose the foundation causes of the issue and take ‘the correct drugs’ to alleviate it. It’s on this regard that the structuralist college supplies a greater method to shed mild into these root causes, since one of many principal methodological options of this college of thought is using the historical-inductive method, slightly than the logical-deductive that’s typical of the theories that had area coverage making within the final three a long time.
Due to this fact, it’s crucial to make a change in the best way we method the financial challenges of the growing world, shifting away from theories that conceived the textbook free market mannequin because the blueprint for coverage making in growing international locations, and in the direction of people who emphasizes the attribute traits and underlying working mechanisms in these economies, able to elucidating the core points that forestall LAC from growing.
The primary thesis of the LASS, which was the impossibility to get out of the underdevelopment entice following the western recipe, goes hand by hand with the decolonial agenda that has been resonating an important deal in a a number of of fields of science within the final couple of a long time. The decolonial authors argue that the colonial international locations had been in a position to reproduce their outdated dominance relations over the colonized ones by way of the unfold (and imposition) of the euro-centric view of science, which are likely to naturalize these epistemological hierarchies and create subordination buildings. We are able to simply see that we’re in a position to attain the identical conclusion from both method – and that the necessity for a improvement principle of our personal is pressing. Due to this fact, on this chapter we argue that each approaches can nurture one another to be able to attain this frequent purpose.
This chapter first briefly critiques the structuralist method in Latin America, as it’s thought of one of many principal predecessors of the decolonial agenda, introducing its personal analytical framework for analyzing improvement points particular to Latin America. Secondly, an evaluation of the Mexican labor market is introduced as a case research, to indicate the necessity to method its research by way of new theories and approaches. Thirdly, a bit on the connection between Latin American structuralist college (LASS) and the decolonial agenda is mentioned, and eventually, conclusions are introduced.
A short evaluate on Latin American structuralism
Based on Bielschowsky (1998) the LASS may be described as a selected physique of study, relevant to historic situations correct of the Latin American periphery. Thus, the structural evaluation primarily focuses on medium-long time period financial and social tendencies; paying shut consideration to the habits of social brokers, the function of establishments, it’s change over time, and the preliminary situations.
Epistemologically talking, the LASS depends closely on the inductive methodology. Induction makes reference to the analytical course of that goes from particular information to affirmations of common character (Rojas 1990, 83) by the technique of identification of regularities, establishing interconnections on the noticed phenomena and the detection of traits. Though this methodology may generate theories of restricted scope, the shortage of universality of its conclusions is compensated with a stronger base of empirical validity (World 1969, 431).
This methodology appears extra suitable with the normative nature of the goals of the LASS and permits the evaluation to adapt simply to evolving issues, like these typical of the growing world, with out shedding consistency or coherence (Bielschowsky 1998, 14). This observe departs removed from the abstract-deductive methodology utilized in a lot of the western financial theories, which seeks common and ahistorical legal guidelines, which appears unfitting on the subject of coping with historic and regional specs.
Thus, one of many principal ideas of the LASS is that classical economics (within the Keynesian sense of the phrase) has its limitations on the subject of accurately decoding the fact of growing international locations, resulting in faulty conceptions of financial coverage (González 1986). Raúl Prebisch, the daddy of Latin American structuralism, narrates how he started to query his education as a neoclassical economist when he needed to face the financial penalties of The Nice Melancholy as a Subminister of Finance and the Central Banker of Argentina within the 1930´s. Then, he realized that the standard financial coverage prescriptions, derived from the standard theories, weren’t sufficient to unravel the structural issues (therefore the time period structuralism) of the area (Prebisch 1983). After he left workplace within the early 1940’s, Prebisch was in a position to put collectively the primary theoretical conclusions of his expertise into the work that turned the core foundations of the LASS.
The primary focus of Prebisch’s early work was the exterior vulnerability, the tendency to generate steadiness of funds deficits and the worldwide distribution of the positive factors of technological progress. The evaluation taken upon these points arrives on the conclusion that there are uneven business relationships between the developed international locations, the ‘Heart’, and the growing ones, the ‘Periphery’. This distinction would change into one of many central pillars of structuralist evaluation.
The productive disparities between these two teams of economies have a tendency to maneuver the phrases of commerce in favor of the central economies when these have interaction in commerce with the periphery. Due to this fact, if a free commerce technique is applied in each international locations, these disadvantages will perpetuate themselves within the medium-long run, stopping the peripheral economic system from growing. Thus, when Prebisch joined the Financial Fee for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) in 1949, he was in a position to carry out an correct diagnosisfor the whole area (ECLAC 1951) and steered an inward-looking improvement technique versus the export-oriented various. This was the beginning of the LASS.
After the publication of the prognosis, a number of teachers throughout the area adopted Prebisch’s lead and commenced to make use of the essential toolbox displayed by him – one othe ne hand, the historical-inductive methodology; and alternatively the theoretical idea of the ‘Heart-Periphery relation’ and its implications. This resulted within the flourish of a wealthy literature on the main points that plagued Latin America for the following a long time. The higher identified examples are the structuralist principle of inflation (Noyola 1953; Sunkel 1956; Pinto, 1968), which emphasised the bottleneck coming from a restricted provide of agricultural items and the social stress on wages; and the dependency principle (Furtado, 1971; Cardoso and Faletto 1971; Graciarena 1976) which analyzes the financial and political implications of the ability construction on the sunshine of the Heart-Periphery system.
Nevertheless, there’s one central concern that the authors of the current chapter really feel that hasn’t had sufficient consideration regardless of its discouraging latest efficiency – the distortions concerning the labor market. There have been indicators of unhealthy labor markets throughout the area for the previous couple of a long time, reminiscent of robust presence of informality, inadequate progress of actual wages, and, subsequently, poor high quality jobs.
Labor markets are strongly influenced by institutional and structural elements. The primary one consists of labor laws, minimal wages, and the labor establishments that set up employees’ working situations. As well as, varied actors, reminiscent of commerce unions and employers, are concerned in decision-making concerning the principles of the sport in labor markets. The second group of things influencing the functioning of the labor market, the structural ones, consists of demographic dynamics, i.e., the age distribution of the inhabitants, the extent of girls’s participation in society on the whole (and subsequently within the labor market), the inhabitants’s education, and the financial construction inherited from the previous, amongst others.
A great instance of the affect of institutional elements within the battle for collective labor rights is Latin America. Based on Cerdas Santi (2017, 215), by way of the event of the horizontal voice, an idea launched by O’Donnell (1989), the ability of employees by way of the union has contributed to cut back energy asymmetries vis-à-vis the state and employers. Nevertheless, within the case of Mexico, because the introduction of the neoliberal mannequin, a majority of these political figures have misplaced collective energy.
The labor market points weren’t of main curiosity for the structuralist authors till the last decade of the 80’s, nonetheless there are some writings that deal with these issues as a consequence of different phenomena. The early structuralist considered these labor market mishaps on account of the transition from a primarily rural economic system into an city one with extra trendy productive sectors and the reallocation of the labor pressure all through these sectors, a phenomenon Aníbal Pinto (1970) known as structural heterogeneity. By the center of the 1980’s the labor panorama turned worrisome, because the capability of the city facilities to soak up the rising labor pressure was undermined. The consequence was a widening of the tertiary sector, which is characterised by low productiveness actions and substandard jobs, exhibiting a special form of structural heterogeneity throughout the huge cities (Pinto 1984).
Within the subsequent a long time, the coverage making paradigm suffered a giant shift in the direction of a extra market-oriented one, when a lot of the international locations adopted the neoliberal agenda and began to pursue goals like opening up the economic system to worldwide commerce and capital flows – in addition to the liberation of key home markets reminiscent of monetary, telecommunications, and labor. A sequence of structural reforms by the Worldwide Financial Fund (IMF), the World Financial institution (WB) and the World Commerce Group (WTO) had been applied to realize these targets (Mosoeta & Williams 2012, 2). In the meantime, the welfare state was dismantled to a minimal degree leaving susceptible sectors to the need of the invisible hand.
The anticipated advantages of those measures adopted the mainstream narrative; a big enchancment in allocation of assets and effectivity; will increase in productiveness and progress; larger wages and higher distribution of earnings; and, lastly, a discount in poverty (Toye 2003, 30–34). Evidently, these rewards had been under-delivered, as labor situations within the International South nonetheless differ from these prevailing within the International North (Saad-Filho 2005). Defining International South broadly as to the areas of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania, which might additionally discuss with as Third World and Periphery, that denote areas exterior Europe and North America, principally (although not all) low-income and infrequently politically or culturally marginalized (Dados and Connell 2012, 12). Though we’re conscious that the person expertise throughout international locations could also be a bit numerous, we all know that this example is very true for one of many largest economies within the area: Mexico.
Mexico’s case research
Over 40 years have handed because the publication of the 1984 Pinto’s article on the state of affairs of the labor market in Latin America, and it’s alarming how comparable was the labor panorama described within the 1980’s and the one we’re experiencing proper now. Though there was a gradual fall within the fee of labor pressure participation worldwide, the development in Mexico and Latin America had been extra steady previous to the disaster brought on by the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, as of 2012, the participation fee was steady at round 68% in Latin America and 64% in Mexico. Nevertheless, because the latest disaster in accordance with ILO knowledge (2020), greater than 26 million individuals misplaced their jobs throughout 2020, representing a ten% drop in labor pressure participation within the area.
As well as, financial progress expectations for the Latin American area, and for Mexico specifically, will not be favorable. Determine 5.2 reveals the financial progress fee of GDP for Mexico, Latin America, and the World between 2005 and 2020. It reveals a better drop within the 2012 disaster interval for Mexico (-5.2%) than for Latin America (-1.88%) and the remainder of the world (-1.67%). Within the post-crisis interval, it may be stated that Mexico’s progress had been stagnant with charges ranging between two and three p.c within the final decade. Even with the COVID-19 pandemic, Mexico is among the many international locations within the area with the steepest drop in GDP (-8.23%) in 2020, whereas the autumn noticed within the area was decrease (-6.30%).
On account of the evolution of the financial cycle, unemployment charges within the area have adopted totally different patterns. Determine 5.3 reveals that, within the Latin American area, this indicator has been above the world common all through the interval, reaching over 8% lately; whereas on the international degree, the unemployment fee has adopted a barely downward development since 2009, reaching 4.9% in 2019. Then again, unemployment charges in Mexico will not be usually excessive (the very best values had been recorded in periods of disaster, after they had been above 5%) and since 2017 they’ve returned to values ranging between 3.4% and three.3%, aside from 2020, after they rose to 4.7%.
As reviewed within the earlier graphics, unemployment charges will not be often remarkably excessive in Mexico, however having a job doesn’t assure respectable dwelling situations. Due to this fact, it is very important analyze different indicators that mirror the labor situations of employees. Presumably one of many indicators that finest characterizes Latin American labor markets are the excessive charges of labor informality, which discuss with each these employed within the casual sector and people employed in casual situations (i.e., they might be employed in completely constituted personal or public firms, however don’t take pleasure in sure labor rights reminiscent of social safety, non-wage advantages, or have entry to well being establishments). Mexico isn’t any exception and has informality charges of over 55%. As may be seen in Determine 4, the incidence of labor informality, which reveals the same sample by gender, has proven a lower since 2012 (after the spike recorded throughout the Nice Recession and beginning in 2007). Nevertheless, regardless of this, the common worth in 2020 is near 56%.
Much more modern authors reminiscent of Ros (2015) state that the Mexican labor market in Mexico is ‘…very aggressive and versatile, with low union density, excessive labor turnover charges and excessive labor mobility between sectors’ (10). As well as, they point out that stagnation in actual wages can be associated to excessive charges of informality, a segmentation between the formal and casual labor market, throughout the formal sector technological situations and totally different market buildings result in wage variations between industries. In different phrases, a rise in employment in trendy sectors doesn’t convey with it a big improve in the true wages that these sectors should pay (Ros 2015, 10)
For his or her half Levy and Székely (2016), spotlight that informality charges in Latin America have remained fixed, furthermore within the case of Mexico there was no enchancment within the final 20 years. Additionally they argue that there’s a shut connection between informality and low productiveness ranges in Mexico, declaring that though there have been important advances in instructional protection, these haven’t been mirrored in a lower in informality charges (501).
As well as, it reveals that the labor informality fee for ladies, between 57 and 60 p.c, is barely (a few share factors) larger than that of males. Different indicators that intensify labor precariousness are working hours and low wages. Mexico is the nation with the longest working hours and the bottom wages within the OECD (OECD 2018), with a median of two,148 hours of labor per 12 months per employee; properly above the OECD common (1,734 hours). On the similar time, the minimal wage is at $1.1 per hour (in comparison with the OECD common of $6.7 per hour). And in lots of circumstances, the labor earnings of Mexican employees is under the poverty line. On the similar time, there was a stagnation of actual wages and, subsequently, a loss within the buying energy of households. Determine 5 reveals the evolution of the common actual wage per employee, which has ranged between 330 and 350 pesos per day from 2005 to 2018, a rise of lower than six p.c over a 13-year interval.
In conjunction, there was a stagnation of actual wages and, subsequently, a loss within the buying energy of households. Based on the Mexican Institute of Social Safety (IMSS) knowledge, the common actual wage per employee has ranged between 330 and 350 pesos per day from 2005 to 2018, a rise of lower than six p.c over a 13-year interval. If we examine the evolution of Mexico’s actual wage with that of different Latin American international locations, as proven in Determine 5, we discover that whereas remunerations in international locations reminiscent of Peru, Chile and Brazil are on the rise; in Mexico, the buying energy of employees is sort of stagnant. This case has been occurring for greater than 30 years. Based on the estimates of Ibarra and Ros (2019), the common wage has not but recovered the values previous to the 1982 disaster, which implies that it has grown lower than labor productiveness. Therefore, the wage share has been declining for many years, reaching ranges as little as one quarter of the whole worth added.
Observing this expertise, and the way labor situations appear to be worsening, the query arises as as to if precarization and dangerous labor situations have change into a everlasting characteristic of Latin American improvement and whether or not it has contributed to the area’s disappointing long-term efficiency. Because of this, it’s crucial to query the present validity of sure ideas, what is going on in these societies, and the method underneath which sure phenomena are studied and analyzed.
The LASS and the decolonizing agenda
One of many central concepts of the decolonizing agenda is that types of coloniality nonetheless persist within the current, not solely in trendy relations of energy that solidify and naturalize the racial domination of colonialism, but additionally in information formations and trendy (individualist) methods of being that colonial energy imposed on the world as a hegemonic commonplace (Adams and Estrada 2017, 7). If we apply this precept to the issues of financial improvement, we’ve the start line for the LASS.
As Cañón (2019, 12) places it, the inferiority of some international locations is accentuated by the shortcoming to generate their very own science, which is taken benefit of by others to train domination over them and classify them as underdeveloped. Thus, a handbook for improvement is designed and imposed on them. Though the issue could appear purely financial, it’s a lot wider. It is because of this that the LASS method to economics may contribute to the decolonizing agenda, and vice versa; the structuralists may present the methodological foundations and the research circumstances for elaborating an analytic physique that permits underdeveloped international locations to create its personal tailored map for improvement; whereas the decolonizing authors could wider the imaginative and prescient past the financial dimension and contribute to the formation of a extra general principle.
A number of decolonial authors have already talked about the relevance of the LASS as an necessary predecessor for the decolonial agenda. Aníbal Quijano (2007, 95) acknowledges Prebisch as probably the most influential creator within the Latin American makes an attempt to get away from the Eurocentric view; Restrepo & Rojas (2010, 61) point out Prebisch too as a milestone within the decolonial inflection within the social sciences; whereas Sérgio Costa (2019) identified that dependentistas opened a second lineage of Latin American modernity analysis, rejecting dualistic descriptions in the direction of a radical relational method to international asymmetries and provoking present postcolonial and decolonial approaches (as quoted in Ruvituso 2020, 35).
Then again, there haven’t been many latest makes an attempt to make use of the decolonial ideas in economics, because it has proved to be a self-discipline very reluctant to alter (Kayatekin 2009, 113). Nonetheless, some authors have identified the need to include the decolonial toolbox into the sector; Kvangraven and Kesar (2021, 5–6) emphasize that the economist’s obsession for objectivity and rigor prevents them from uncovering its Eurocentric core hidden within the formalizations of the mainstream method, and requires the acknowledgement of the decolonial views for a greater understanding of the unequal buildings that create injustice. Then again, Danby (2009, 1119) proposes that the adoption of postcolonial ideas in heterodox financial evaluation would make it extra sturdy, since it’s going to apply ideas like uncertainty and historic time to a broader set of establishments and transcend the Eurocentric modernity, mentioning Celso Furtado and Juan Noyola as examples of it.
Lastly, in his late work, Prebisch (1983, 23) mirrored moreover on his Heart-Periphery system concluding that this relationship goes far past simply commerce – the late industrialization of the periphery accentuated its tendency to mimic the middle, making an attempt to undertake its expertise and its life-style, to observe its ideology and reproduce its establishments. Thus, this technique penetrates underneath the social construction, creating appreciable contradictions that must be highlighted to be able to be corrected. The reader can simply respect the shut hyperlink to the decolonial ideas.
Conclusion
The approaches introduced on this paper present that one of many nice contributions of Latin American important pondering has been its instruments to deal with issues intrinsic to Latin American international locations. It additionally units an necessary precedent within the creation of a physique of labor particular for a time and place, thus offering to the coverage makers with the analytical arguments for implementing a special improvement technique. With out these approaches we couldn’t be speaking concerning the significance of decolonizing science and that the international locations of the International South construct their very own information. To decolonize science is to just accept that information is marked by energy relations, in that sense each approaches complement one another. The Heart-Periphery conception of the LASS can nourish from the decolonial ideas to solidify its foundations; whereas the historical-inductive methodology developed by the structuralist authors may function an epistemological various to allow the International South to the creation of information.
The aim of conducting a research relating the necessity to decolonize science, by way of Latin American approaches, along with the research of Latin American labor markets characterised by precariousness, stagnant wages, excessive charges of informality and lack of labor rights, is to spotlight the relevance of structural and institutionalist approaches for understanding the functioning of labor markets. It’s evident that there’s a relationship between informality charges and the stagnation of actual wages, brought on partly by the segmentation of labor markets, which results in better funding in sectors with better human capital and expertise, making needed a wage coverage that redistributes earnings in favor of decrease wage earners, to stimulate the home market, productiveness and funding in lagging sectors.
Final, however not least, the authors want to convey consideration to the relevance of this agenda, it’s of utmost significance to generate an analytical framework that delves into the roots of the financial and labor situations of those international locations, to be subsequently translated into public insurance policies that contain all employees who’ve been invisible inside these energy relations.
Figures can be found within the downloadable PDF linked on the high of the web page.
References
Bértola, Luis, and Ocampo, José Antonio. El desarrollo económico de América Latina desde la independencia. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2013.
Bielschowsky, Ricardo. “Cincuenta años del pensamiento de la CEPAL: una reseña.” in: Cincuenta años del pensamiento de la CEPAL: textos seleccionados, 9-61 Santiago: Fondo de Cultura Económica/CEPAL, 1998.
Cañón, J. A. “El papel de la economía en el proyecto decolonial“. Econografos. Escuela de Economía, No.130 (January, 2019): 2–54.
Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, and Enzo Faletto. Dependencia y desarrollo en América Latina: ensayo de interpretación sociológica. Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1971.
Cerdas-Sandí, D. “Derechos laborales colectivos y democracia. Una discusión a partir del concepto voz horizontal de Guillermo O’Donnell”. Revista IUS, 12.42, (2018): 209–230.
Costa, S. “The analysis on modernity in Latin America: Lineages and dilemmas.” Present
Sociology, 67 no.6 (2019): 838–855.
Dados N. and Connell R. “The International South.” Contexts, 11(1) (February, 2012): 12–13.
Danby, Colin. “Put up-Keynesianism with out modernity.” Cambridge journal of economics 33.6 (2009): 1119–1133.
ECLAC, Financial survey of Latin America. Santiago de Chile: United Nations, 2019.
https://estadisticas.cepal.org/cepalstat/portada.html?idioma=english
Furtado, Celso. Desarrollo y Subdesarrollo. Río de Janeiro: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1971.
Graciarena, Jorge. “El problema del poder en los estilos de desarrollo una perspectiva heterodoxa.” El trimestre económico 43.172 (September 1976): 1077–1101.
González, Norberto. “Homenaje a Don Raúl Prebisch” in Raúl Prebisch: un aporte al estudio de su pensamiento. Edited by Financial Fee for Latin America and the Caribbean, 9–12. Santiago de Chile: United Nations, 1987.
INEGI Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática. Financial Info Financial institution. 2021. https://www.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/bie/
Kayatekin, Serap A. “Between political economic system and postcolonial principle: first encounters.” Cambridge Journal of Economics 33.6 (2009): 1113–1118.
Kvangraven, Ingrid Harvold, and Surbhi Kesar. “Standing in the best way of rigor? economics’ assembly with the decolonizing agenda.”. The New Faculty for Social Analysis Working Paper. (October, 2021): 1–55.
Levy, Santiago & Székely, Miguel “¿Más escolaridad, menos informalidad? Un análisis de cohortes para México y América Latina. El trimestre económico, 83.332, (2016): 499–548.
Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos, and Jaime Ros. Improvement and progress within the Mexican economic system: A historic perspective. Oxford College Press, 2009.
Mosoetsa, Sarah and Williams, Michelle. Labour within the international South: Challenges and options for employees. Geneva: Worldwide Labour Workplace, 2012.
Noyola Vázquez, Juan. “El desarrollo económico y la inflación en México y otros países latinoamericanos.” Investigación económica 16. No.4 (1956): 603–648.
O’donnell, G. “Transiciones, continuidades y algunas paradojas.” Cuadernos políticos, 56.1 (1989): 9–36.
OECD. Organisation for Financial Co-operation and Improvement. Employment database. 2018. http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm
Pinto, Aníbal. “Metropolización y terciarización: malformaciones estructurales en el desarrollo latinoamericano.” Revista de la CEPAL 24(December 1984): 17–38.
Pinto, Aníbal. “Naturaleza e implicaciones de la” heterogeneidad estructural” de la América Latina.” El trimestre económico 37.145 (January 1970): 83–100.
Pinto, Aníbal. “Raíces estructurales de la inflación en América Latina.” El Trimestre Económico 35.137 (January 1968): 63–74.
Prebisch, Raúl. “Cinco etapas de mi pensamiento sobre el desarrollo.” El trimestre económico 50, no. 198 (2), (1983): 1077–1096.
Quijano, Aníbal. “Colonialidad del poder y clasificación social” in El giro decolonial: reflexiones para una diversidad epistémica más allá del capitalismo international, edited by Castro-Gómez, Santiago, and Grosfoguel, Ramón. (Bogotá: Siglo del Hombre Editores, 2007), 93–126.
Restrepo, E. & Rojas A. 2010. Inflexión decolonial: fuentes, conceptos y cuestionamientos. Popayán: Universidad del Cauca, 2010.
Rojas S., Raúl. El proceso de la investigación científica. México: Trillas, 1981.
Ros, Jaime. ¿Cómo salir de la trampa del lento crecimiento y alta desigualdad?. Ciudad de México: El Colegio de Mexico AC, 2015.
Ros, Jaime. “¿Por qué cae la participación de los salarios en el ingreso whole en México?”. Economía UNAM, 12.36 (2015): 3–15.
Ruvituso, C. I. 2020. “From the South to the North: The circulation of Latin American dependency theories within the Federal Republic of Germany.” Present Sociology, 68.1, (2020): 22–40.
Saad-Filho, A. 2005. “From Washington to post-Washington consensus: Neoliberal agendas for
financial improvement”, in Neoliberalism: A important reader, edited by Saad-Filho A. and D. Johnson (London: Pluto Press, 2005), 113–119.
Sunkel, Osvaldo. “La inflación chilena: un enfoque heterodoxo.” El trimestre económico 25.100 (September 1958): 570–599.
Toye, John. “Altering views in improvement economics.” in Rethinking improvement economics, ed. Ha-Joon Chang, 21-40. London: Anthem Press, 2003.
Wold, Herman O. “Mergers of economics and philosophy of science.” Synthese 20.4 (1969): 427–482.
The World Financial institution. 2021. World Improvement Indicators. Washington, D.C.: The World Financial institution (producer and distributor). http://knowledge.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators
Additional Studying on E-Worldwide Relations
[ad_2]
Source link